Mughal Empire

Zahir ud din Muhammad Babur was the founder of Mughal Empire. He was related to Chengiz Khan from his mothers side and to Timur through his father. He was the ruler of Farghana, but deprived of his kingdom by a distant relative Shaibani Khan Uzbek. 

Important Wars of Babur

1526

In the first battle of Panipat he defeated Afghans under Ibrahim Lodi

1527

In the Battle of Khanwa near Agra, Rajputs under Ranasanga was defeated

1528

He defeated Medini Rai

1529

In the Battle of Ghagara in Bihar, Afghans under Muhammad Lodi was defeated.

In the Tuzuk I Baburi written in Chaghatay Turki , Babur frankly confess his own failures and are free from inhibitions.

Humayun is often considered as the problem child of the Mughals. So loved by his father that he offered his life in exchange for his son when the latter was gravely ill. After the death of Babur in 1830, Humayun succeeded to an uneasy realm extending from Kabul and Kandahar to the borders of Bengal. In 1534-35 Humayun took Malwa and Gujarat in a brilliant campaign but then took his pleasure for a year in Agra in the meantime loosing both of them. This inactivity enabled the Afghan opposition to take shape and it now found a leader in the person of Sher Shah Shur, who had joined Babur in 1526 but now built up a power for himself in South Bihar. Only when Sher Shah Shur moved against Bengal did Humayun stir. In the battle of Chausa (1539) Sher Sha defeated Humayun. He was forced to use inflated skin offered him by a poor water carrier. As the brother of Humayun failed to provide assistance Humayun faced Sher Sha again in the Battle of Bilgram(also known as battle of Kanuj) in 1540. His brother Kamran closed Kabul and Punjab to him, using the opportunity which his brothers misfortune gave. Humayun escaped to Persia with much difficulty, where Shah Ismail gave him asylum. On the way, at Umarkot in Sind on 23 November 1542, his son Akbar was born. After the 15 exile, he got the assistance from Iran, he reconquered India by defeating the Afghans in 1555. However soon his life came to an end byaccidental death while coming down the steps of library in 1556.

Akbar was crowned at Kalanur at the young age of 13 years.Bairam Khan was his tutor and later he became the Vakkil of the kingdom. 

Military campaigns

1556

In the second battle of Panipat defeated Hemu thus laid strong foundation

1561

Conquered Malwa from Baz Bahadur

1564

Conquered Ghrhkatanga ( Rani Durgavati & her minor son Bir Narayan died in the battle) and Gondwana

1572

Gujarat ( he built famous Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur sikri in commemoration of victory

1574-76

Bihar and Bengal

1581

Kabul

1586

Baluchistan

1591

Sind

1592

Orissa

1595

Qandahar

1593-1601

Khandesh and a part of Ahmadnagar from Chand Bibi

• Bairam Khan was killed on his way to Mecca by a Pathan (Mubaris Khan).
• Akbar Abolished pilgrim tax in 1563
• His trusted friend and minister Bir Bal was killed by Yusufzais in 1586
• Abul Fazal was murder by Bir Singh Bundela ib 1602 at the instignation of Prince Salim

Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs and won their support by establishing matrimonial alliances.

• In 1562 he married the eldest daughter of Raja Bihal mal of Jaipur. He maintained alliances with Bihar and Jaisalmer.
• In 1584 his son Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.
• In 1567 he marched against Chittor. In 1568 Chittor was captured by the Mughals.
• By 1569 Ranthambhor and Kalinjar was also captured.
• He met the Rajput ruler Maharana Pratap in the battle of Haldighat in 1576. After a fierce battle Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

Religious Policy In 1575 Akbar ordered the construction of .Ibadat Khana (house of worship). Initially only sunnis were allowed to participate in the religious debates later allowed the representatives of Shias, Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians. In 1579 a document called .Mahzar was signed by the Ulema under the Guidance of Shaik Mubarak and sons. It empowered the emperor to decide controversial legal questions. In 1582 he founded Din Ilahi (divine Faith)

Akbar was succeeded by his son Muhammad Salim also called Jahangir. In 1600 Prince Salim declared himself the emperor of Delhi in the absence of Akbar. However, he surrendered himself before Akbar. In 1605 Akbar proclaimed him as the ruler. On assuming power he introduced several reforms to bring an opinion of trust in his subjects. In .1606 Prince Khusrau rose in revolt against Jahangir but he was blinded after his successful attempt. Jahangir was deeply influenced by the charms of his queen. Nur Jahan whom he married 1611 and left the task of administration entirely on her at times. He was engaged in a war with Amar Singh of Mewar in 1614, and subdued him. In 1610 he captured the fort of Kangra. In 1620 Kistwar was under his rule.The period of 1610-1620 witnessed wars with Ahmednagar ruled by the Nizam Shahi dynasty under Malik Ambar

Jahangir died in 1627 and was succeed by Shah Jahan was ruled from 1627 to 1658. He was one of the four sons of Jahangir. He came into prominence after. the revolt in 1622. On coming to the throne he solved the problems which led to rebellion by the Bundela Rajputs. In 1628 Shah Jahan quelled the rebellion by Khan Jahan Lodi and annexed his territory by 1630. His love for his queen Mumtaz Mahal was immense. After her death in 1631, he built the .Taj Mahal in memory of her. 

In the years 1631-32 he was involved in wars with the Portuguese. He shared the Kingdom of Ahmednagar with the Sultan of Bijapur in 1636. After settling the problems he faced in the Deccan he retired to Agra in 1636. Aurangzeb was appointed Governor of the Deccan and he ruled from 1633-44. Khandhar which had evaded Mughal rule since 1623 was seiged by Aurangeb in 1649. In 1652 a second attempt was made in the wake of the failure of the first attempt. In 1653 for the third time Kandhar was threatened but was not captured.

Jahangir (1605-1627): 

Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658): 

Aurangazeb (1658-1707): 

In 1657 a war of succession started owing to the illness of Shah Jahan between .Dara, Shah Suja, Aurangzeb, and Murad.Aurangzeb being the ablest of the three, succeed Shah Jahan. He ruled from 1658-1707. Aurangzeb was the last great Mughal ruler who took the Mughal empire to its greatest glory. Aurangzeb possessed an empire which extended from Ghazni to Bengal and from Kashmir to the Deccan. Through his stern measures much of which had a fanatical motive towards his religion, he could rule the empire all by himself. Every power of authority was granted with his consent. In 1667 Aurangzeb put down the revolt of the Yusufzais. In 1672 the revolt of the Afridis against the Mughals brought losses to the emperor. In 1674 Auranzeb used a diplomatic tactics supported by force to resolve the issue. Aurangzebs diplomatic efforts resulted in relations with Mecca, Persia, Abyssinia, and the Turks between the period of 1661 and 1667. He had established contacts with Constaninople in 1690. The imposition of .Jizya on the Hindus in 1679 which was an anti Hindu policy resulted in the rise of the Rajput in a revolt in 1769. This struggle continued till 1681 when Aurangzeb made peace with the Rajputs.The other sect affected by the Anti-hindu policy of Aurangzeb were the Satnamis. Their revolt was crushed by Aurangzeb. Next was the revolt of the Jats of Mathura which was an opposition to the policy and oppression under Aurangzeb. Though they were suppressed in the early period they carried on the struggle till the death of Aurangzeb. The revolt of the Bundela Rajputs and the Sikhs were other significant effects of Aurangzebs anti Hindu policy. The sikhs who temples were destroyed were hurt. The death of Guru Teg Bahadur their 9th guru was more hurting . They swore the destruction of the Mughals. Under the 10th Guru Govind Singh, and ,after his death in 1708 the struggle was carried on. From the period 1682-1707 Aurangzeb turned towards the Deccan , conqeured Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687. Aurangzeb faced stiff resistance from the Marathas under Shivaji and remained unsuccessful in subduing the Marathas

Features of Mughal Administration

Mansab System: .Mansab (or rank) under the Mughals indicated the position of its Holder (mansabdar) in the official hierarchy. It also fixed the status of its holder, his pay.(Zat) and the number of troopers with horses.(sarwar) and equipment to be maintained by him. The .Dagh (branding of Horses) and Chahra (descriptive roll of soliders) were introduced into this system by Akbar in his 18th regnal year. He also introduced the Zat and Sarwar system from the 41st regnal year. All the mansabdars were under the direct control of the emperor. The masab was not hereditary and depends on merit. .Jahangir introduced. Duaspa – Sihaspa (2-3 horses) rank. Jahangir Made further changes by scaling down the obligations of the mansabdar known as the .Rule of 1/3rd, 1/4th.

Jagir system

Jagir denotes a unit of land assigned to a mansabdar in lieu of his salary. Like iqta ,the assignment of jagir to a mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights. The Jagir system was closely related to the mansab system. One important feature to be noted here that not all Jarirdars were mansabdars because some mansabdars were paid in cash. There was Jagirdari crisis in the Mughal period which resulted in the attempt of nobles to corner the most profitable Jagirs for themselves. But in reality it was crisis in the economic and social relations of Mughal India.

Administration of Mughal

One of the main important feature of Mughal rule was it does not recognize any superior authority like caliph like the Delhi Sultans. The form of Mughal government was despotic monarchy. 

The following are the important functionaries of the Mughal emprire 

Emperor

       The king was head of the Executive,Legislature, Judiciary and the Army

Vakkil

    Deputy or representative of the emperor. Decline of this office after Bairam Khan

Wazir or Diwan

    Head of the Revenue Department and in the absence of Vakkil acted as Prime Minister

Mir Bakshi

    Head of Military Dept., and the Paymaster General

Sadr us Sudur

     Head of the ecclesiastical and Charities Dept., some times acted as Quazi head of Justice Dept.,

Khan I Saman

     Head of royal house hold

Diwan i Khalisa

     In charge of crown lands

Diwan i tan

    In charge of Jagirs

Mushrif i mumalik

     accountant General

Mustauf i General

      Auditor General

Mir i arz

   In charge of petitions

Mir I atish

    head of artillery

Muhtasibs

    who enforced public moral

Waqia navis

    news reporters

Khufia navis

    secret letter writers

Harkarahs

     spies and special courtiers etc

Provincial and Local Administration

The mughal empire was divided into provinces called Subhas. The governor of Subahs was known as subehdar or sipajh salar or nayim. The provincial looked after the revenue administration. He acted as check to the Subehdar. Most of the central fuctionaries had counter part in the provinces.

The province was divided into sarkars, sarkars into paraganas which consists of a group of villages.

Agriculture and Land revenue administration.

The Mughuls systematically exploited the peasants through their land revenue administration. They followed the system of Sher sha and Akbar experimented with land revenue collection innovated their own administration. According to Abul fazal , the hereditary rights of the peasants were recognized. Akbar introducedZabti or Bandobast system. With the help of Raja Todar Mal , he fixed a new jama. He then started his famousKarori experiment by which khalisa land was divided into circles each yielding one Karor. He used a bamboo stick (tanab) joined by iron rings instead of rope. On the basis on these initial experiments, Todar mal introdued new reforms called Ain I Dahasala. Under the system the land was divided into 4 categories 

Polaj   Annualy cultivated

Parauti

     Left fallow for 1 to 2 years

Chachar

    left fallow for 3 to 4 years

Banjar

    uncultivated for 5 years or more.

The Land revenue was generally paid in Cash, however certain exemptions were made. In Orissa and Kashmir it was in Kind. The land records in the village level was kept by patwari . He prepared a register containing these information was known asBahi. There were qanungos at the pargana level and at the sarkar level amil or amalguzar was the chief collector of revenue. He was assisted by Karkun and Khanzandar (treasurer).

Literature of the Mughal Period

Author                                   Name of the Book                                             Remarks

Gulbadan Begam                    Humayun Namah                               History of Humayun

Abul Fazl                                 Ain i Akbari                                      History of Akbars reign

Abul Fazl                                 Akbar Namah

Baduni                               Mutakhab ul Tawarikh

Mulla Daud                             Tawarikh i Alfi

Nizam ud din Ahmad              Tabaqat i Akbari

Jahangir                                  Tuzuk i Jahangiri                                    His autobiography

Mutamad Khan                          Iqbal Namah                             History of Jahangirs reign

Abdul Hamid Lahori                 Padsha Namah                           Hisorty of Shah Jahans reign

Muhammad Waris                     Padsha Namah

Inayat Khan                           Shah Jahan Namah

Muhammad salih                     Shah Jahan Namah

Dara Shikoh                            Safinat ul Auliya                                  About sufi saints

Dara Shikoh                            Sakinat ul Auliya                          Transilation of Upanishad

Dara Shikoh                           Hasanat ul Arifin                                His religious ideas

Dara Shikoh                          Majma ul Bahrain

Aurangazeb                          Raqqat i Alamgiri                                 Collection of His letters

Khafi Khan                            Muntakhab ul Lubab                             History of Aurangazeb

Bhimsen                                  Nuskha I Dilkusha

Iswar Das                               Futuhat i Alamgiri

Sujan Rai Khatri                  Khulasat ul Tawarikh

Muhammad Rafi Khan               Hamlai Haidari

Muhammad Saqi                      Masir i Alamgiri

Muhammad Kazim                    Alamirgir Namah

Tulsi Das                               Ram charit Manasa

Surdas                                         Sursagar

                                                Razm Namah                             Transilation of Mahabarata

Badauni                             Translated Ramayana

Sarhindi                         Translated Atharva Veda

Faizi                                     Translated Lilavati

Shahabadi                     Translated Rajathanrangini

Mugal Painting

Mughal painting were small in size so known as miniature paintings, depicted mostly courtly and aristocratic, excellent in colour combination and portrait painting and a keen appreciation of nature was the main features of Mughal Painting. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdul Samad was the court painter of Humayun. Akbar had a great interest in Painting majority of painters seemed to be Hindu. During Akbars reign two or more artists worked together rather than just one. The chief painters were Mir Sayed Ali, Abdul Samad and Baswan. The first endeavour was Dastan i Amir Hamza. Akbar introduced western techniques into Indian Paintings due to Jesuit influence. Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir. The important painter served under Jahangir wereAqa Riza, his son Abul Hasan, Bishan das, Madu , Ustad Masur etc. Though his imain interest was in architecture Shajahan patronized painting. Aurangazeb did not patronize any arts.

Mughal Architecture

The Mughals combined the Persian elements of grandeur with the Hindu architecture. The first to undertook fort building on large scale was Akbar. He built Agra fort in red stone. Shajahans Red fort at Delhi was the most important fort constructed by Mughuls. Mughals used white marbles in their building for the fist time in the Humayuns tomb at Delhi. Akbars tomb at Sikandara was started by him and completed by Jahangir shows the influence of Buddhist Vihara. Tomb of Itimad ud daula was constructed by Nur Jahan for her father wholly of white marble with pietra dura(Decoration of walls with floral design made of semi precious stones). Taj Mahal constructed by Shajahan was considered as the jewel of builders art. It was supposedly built by Ustad Isa at the cost of Rs 50 lakhs at that time. Shajahan also built the Moti Masjid at Agra and Jama Masjid at Delhi.

Mughal Architecture

The Mughals combined the Persian elements of grandeur with the Hindu architecture. The first to undertook fort building on large scale was Akbar. He built Agra fort in red stone. Shajahans Red fort at Delhi was the most important fort constructed by Mughuls. Mughals used white marbles in their building for the fist time in the Humayuns tomb at Delhi. Akbars tomb at Sikandara was started by him and completed by Jahangir shows the influence of Buddhist Vihara. Tomb of Itimad ud daula was constructed by Nur Jahan for her father wholly of white marble with pietra dura(Decoration of walls with floral design made of semi precious stones). Taj Mahal constructed by Shajahan was considered as the jewel of builders art. It was supposedly built by Ustad Isa at the cost of Rs 50 lakhs at that time. Shajahan also built the Moti Masjid at Agra and Jama Masjid at Delhi.